Chapter 3: Stress: Its Meaning, Impact, and Sources

Stress emerges when people perceive a mismatch between situational demands and their available biological, psychological, or social resources. The cognitive appraisal model forms the foundation of this understanding, with primary appraisal determining whether an event is irrelevant, positive, or stressful, and secondary appraisal assessing coping resources. Stressful events activate the fight-or-flight response through sympathetic and endocrine system activation. Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes three physiological stages—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion—that characterize prolonged stress exposure. The modern concept of allostatic load explains cumulative physiological wear resulting from repeated stressor exposure, influenced by exposure duration, response intensity, recovery speed, and resource replenishment. Psychologically, stress impairs cognitive functions including memory, attention, and executive functioning while triggering emotional responses such as anxiety, depression, and anger. Behaviorally, stress can diminish social engagement and increase aggressive responses. Stress sources span multiple domains: internal factors including illness and personal conflicts, family-level stressors such as birth of children, marital dissolution, and member illness or death, and community factors encompassing workplace demands, environmental hazards, natural disasters, and chronic strain from low socioeconomic status and discrimination. Assessment methods include physiological markers like cortisol and epinephrine levels alongside self-report instruments such as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale and daily hassles inventories. The chapter distinguishes between distress and eustress, recognizing that moderate stress can enhance performance while excessive stress becomes harmful. Overall, the chapter establishes stress as a multifaceted phenomenon requiring integration of biological, psychological, and social perspectives to understand its origins and consequences across the lifespan.