Chapter 8: Joints

The pectoral girdle, composed of the clavicle and scapula, serves as a flexible anchor that allows the upper limbs exceptional range of motion while maintaining stability. The upper limb skeleton includes the humerus in the arm, the radius and ulna in the forearm, and the intricate carpal bones of the wrist arranged in two rows that permit fine motor control. The hand structure incorporates metacarpals and phalanges that enable precise manipulation and tactile interaction with objects. The chapter then transitions to the pelvic girdle, formed by the paired coxal bones consisting of the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which fuse to create a robust structure capable of supporting the weight of the upper body and anchoring the lower limbs securely. Anatomically significant differences between male and female pelves are detailed for their clinical importance in medical practice and anatomical understanding. The lower limb skeleton includes the femur as the primary weight-bearing bone, along with the patella, tibia, and fibula, which work together to support body weight during standing and locomotion. The ankle and foot contain tarsals and metatarsals arranged to provide structural support, while key bony landmarks such as the greater trochanter, medial and lateral malleoli, and calcaneus are emphasized for their anatomical and clinical significance. The chapter concludes by examining the arches of the foot, including the medial longitudinal, lateral longitudinal, and transverse arches, which function to distribute body weight effectively and absorb mechanical shock during movement and daily activities.