Chapter 11: Childhood Temperament

Temperament is seen as a core construct that forms the foundation upon which personality, which is described as the cognitive and social elaborations of temperament, is built. Historically, the study of individual differences traces back to the Greco-Roman physicians’ fourfold typology, which linked temperamental characteristics to the relative preponderance of body humors, identifying types like the melancholic, choleric, sanguine, and phlegmatic. Modern traditions arose in Eastern Europe, heavily influenced by Pavlov’s observations connecting temperamental variability to qualities of the central nervous system and neural activation. In the West, early studies used psychometric techniques to identify factors such as Activity, Emotivity, and Primary versus Secondary process. Contemporary research utilizes a multimethod approach, integrating parent report questionnaires, standardized laboratory observations, and psychophysiological measures to assess temperament accurately. The current psychometric structure of childhood temperament frequently identifies three broad factors, which refine earlier models like the nine dimensions proposed by Thomas and Chess: Surgency or Extraversion, which includes activity level and enjoyment of high intensity pleasure; Negative Affectivity, encompassing fear, frustration, and sadness; and Effortful Control, which involves inhibitory control, attentional focusing, and shifting. These dimensions are closely related to the adult Big Five personality factors, with Effortful Control aligning with Conscientiousness and Fear with Neuroticism. Developmentally, emotional and orienting reactive systems are observable from birth, appearing earlier than the executive function capabilities associated with Effortful Control. Early extraverted behaviors, like smiling and rapid approach, predict later surgency, while the emergence of fear or behavioral inhibition is stable across childhood and predicts the later development of internalizing disorders such as anxiety. Effortful Control is a crucial later-developing self-regulatory ability, defined as the capacity to inhibit a pre-potent response and voluntarily deploy attention. It allows children to modulate reactive tendencies, resist temptation, and engage in planning, positively predicting prosocial behavior and negatively predicting psychopathology markers like antisocial behavior and ADHD symptoms. Research into the biology of temperament includes molecular genetic studies identifying specific gene interactions (like those involving DRD4 and 5-HTTLPR) that influence neonatal and infant emotionality. Neuroscience further confirms the evolutionary conservation of these systems by finding similar factors in non-human primates, though the capacity for Effortful Control is uniquely advanced in humans, facilitating self-regulation. Ultimately, understanding developmental pathways requires recognizing the bidirectional influence between temperament and environment, as different combinations of temperament and socialization strategies (like gentle discipline for fearful children) can lead to positive outcomes, demonstrating that temperamentally different children may arrive at similar outcomes via different pathways.